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Pythagoras: A Search for Universal Truth and for The Good Copyright © 2004, Amy Pierovich. All Rights Reserved. It
can be said that we are influenced both by those who precede us and
also by our contemporaries. Certain individuals stand out within the
context of history for these persons are exceptional in their thinking,
and in the enduring nature of their contributions to our understanding
of humankind and the world in which we live. Pythagoras is such a man.
He made significant contributions to our knowledge of mathematics, astronomy,
and music. Yet, the contributions of Pythagoras reach beyond an expansion
of knowledge in these areas. Pythagoras sought to shed light on the
essential questions of our existence: What is the purpose of our being?
What can we know? And what constitutes the good? Pythagoras was successful
in arriving at answers to these questions, although Western civilization
has departed from the teachings and beliefs of “the long-haired
Samian” (Iamblichus,
1818/1986, p. 14). Pythagoras
was born circa 569 B.C.E. on the island of Samos, located in the Aegean
Sea in Magna Graecea. He was the third son of Mnesarchus, a Phoenician,
and Pythais. Immediately prior to Pythagoras’ day, great minds
of the time included Zoroaster, the founder of a significant Persian
religion, and the Chinese poet and philosopher Lao-tse. In India, the
Brahminic religion flourished and gave prominence to the concept of
the transmigration of the soul, which likely influenced Pythagoras’
own beliefs and teachings a century later (Grun,
1975, p. 8).
Pythagoras
lived in a time that reached “a zenith of human wisdom and achievement”
(p. 10).
Pythagoras was a contemporary of Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known
as Buddha, in India. He was also the contemporary of Kung Fu-tse, otherwise
known as Confucius, in China. In the time that Pythagoras walked the
earth, Mahavira Jina founded Jainism in India. There appear to be many
parallels between the beliefs and practices of the Pythagoreans and
the Jains. Both adhered to a belief in asceticism, which requires self-discipline
and the renunciation of material things (Bowker,
2002, p. 58).
Moreover, both Pythagorean philosophy and the Jain religion embraced
the concept of transmigration of the soul. Tacit within this belief
is the concept that one must strive toward the good in this life, so
that the soul may be reborn into a higher status of being, or, freed
from the trappings of a physical existence in this world (p.
58).
As Pythagoras and Jina were, in fact, contemporaries, it is difficult
to ascertain to what extent each influenced the other. It is possible
that influences went in both directions, as information traveled by
word of mouth with the traveler. Pythagoras
was more directly influenced by the teachings of Thales and Anaximander
in Ionia (Strohmeier
and Westbrook, 2003, p.26).
Thales and Anaximander sought to make sense of the world and of the
universe through observation and reason. It is said that Thales’
“studies of astrology and the movements of the heavens enabled
him to accurately predict eclipses and the yield of harvests” (p.
26).
Anaximander, who was Thales’ student, hypothesized that “the
visible world must evolve out of ‘the limitless,’ a single
divine and immortal essence that surrounds and steers all things”
(p.
27).
It should be noted that, at this time in history, most people explained
mysterious phenomena through fable, myth, and magic, in an effort to
make sense of the world. But Thales and Anaximander searched for universal
truths, and their teachings strongly influenced Pythagoras. In fact,
it can be said that the teachings of Thales and Anaximander served as
a foundation for Pythagoras’ own beliefs, which further expanded
and evolved thereafter (Strohmeier
and Westbrook, 2003, p. 27).
Due
to a changing political climate, Thales encouraged Pythagoras to leave
their homeland. The tyrant Polycrates had risen to power in Samos, and
Pythagoras’ mentor urged him to travel to Egypt and study with
the priests there, just as Thales had done before him. Pythagoras followed
this sage advice, and, at the age of eighteen, set sail for the coast
of Phoenicia en route to Egypt. In Egypt, Pythagoras entered into the
learned society, and devoted himself to deepening his knowledge of mathematics,
science, and music, in particular. He would come to master astronomy,
“surpassing Thales himself in his ability to predict the future”
(p. 35).
Pythagoras would remain on foreign soil for more than three decades,
and did not return to Samos until the age of fifty-six (p.35).
During
his twenty-third year in Egypt, the region was overtaken by the Persian
armies of Cambyses. The reigning Pharaoh, Psammetichus, was executed.
Members of the Egyptian priesthood, together with Pythagoras, were captured
and brought to Babylon. The Magi, leaders of Persian religion and science,
recognized Pythagoras’ brilliance and his exceptional countenance.
At this time, Pythagoras encountered yet another culture, and its associated
knowledge and ideas. During his twelve years in Babylon, Pythagoras
“perfected his knowledge of number, harmony, rhythm and the other
mathematical sciences”
(p. 35).
Thus, Pythagoras’ own unique philosophy had Greek, Indian, Egyptian,
and Persian influences. From these diverse cultures, Pythagoras adopted
certain beliefs and practices, and discarded others. Pythagoras was
guided by a primary belief that he must search for universal truth and
for the good. Pythagoras
led a life that adhered to moderation in all things. He was a vegetarian,
drank no wine, and believed that one should not excessively indulge
in intimate relations with one’s spouse. A mid day meal would usually
consist of bread and honey or honeycomb (Strohmeier
and Westbrook, 2003, p. 50).
Pythagoras and his followers dressed simply and modestly, at a time
when embellishment was the fashion. Iamblichus noted that the Pythagoreans
“wore a white and pure garment” (Iamblichus,
1818/1986, p. 54).
Pythagoras encouraged his followers to observe catartysis, an
elegance of manners (p.
51).
Pythagoras believed that these habits of living brought one closer to
“the good life.” According to Pythagoras, the good life is
reflected in qualities such as modesty, temperance, and generosity (Strohmeier
and Westbrook, 2003, p. 47).
It
was not a facile undertaking to enter into Pythagorean life. One had
to turn over one’s individual wealth and possessions to the Pythagorean
community
(p. 45).
In addition, there was a three-year probationary period, during which
the individual had to maintain a vow of silence. After the probationary
period, the individual’s character and comportment would then be
carefully evaluated. Some persons were invited to leave the community,
and their wealth would be returned to them two-fold
(p. 48).
Those who continued on as a disciple then entered into a five-year period
of silence. To be a true Pythagorean demanded self-discipline. Conviction
that there is a higher purpose beyond this mortal life fortified the
Pythagorean to continue on his ascetic path. As
stated previously, Pythagoras believed in immortality and transmigration
of the soul. This concept of the soul is related to Pythagoras’
vegetarianism in the following manner. One may be reborn as an animal.
Thus, the eating of animal flesh would defile the soul (Iamblichus,
1818/1986, p. 58).
According to Pythagoras, one must respect the sanctity of all life.
To have compassion for another life is to advance the status of one’s
own life. The Pythagorean perspective does not concern itself with pleasure
in the sense of self-indulgence; rather, the Pythagorean view is one
that seeks to achieve eudaimonia, a greater happiness that is
not transitory in its nature (Robinson,
1997, Lecture 14).
Pythagoras
believed that one’s relationships with others were of great importance.
Pythagoras thought that friendships should be honored, and one must
not betray a friend (Strohmeier
and Westbrook, 2003, p. 63).
A friend by Pythagoras’ definition was any person who adopted his
way of life. The kindness and generosity of the Pythagoreans was well
known: “So famous were his followers for their care of one another,
that until the Christian era, Greeks would call any person of extraordinary
kindness a Pythagorean” (p.
63).
Pythagoras taught his followers sayings such as “friends have all
things in common” (Kahn,
2001, p. 8),
and “my friend is my other self” (Strohmeier
and Westbrook, 2003, p. 62).
Pythagoras’ teachings on philia fostered a sense of community.
Philia was extended not to a select few, but to the larger community
of followers. Moreover, Pythagoras believed that respect and compassion
should also be extended to those persons who were not followers of the
Pythagorean way, as the whole of mankind is one within the universe.
Numbers,
such as the number one, for Pythagoras had both literal and metaphorical
meanings. The number one was called monad and it signified Being,
ousia; one is also a point on a plane (p.
70).
The number two, dyad, signifies “polarity, opposition, divergence,
inequality, divisibility” (p.
71).
Dyad is also two points connecting a line. The number three signifies
“that nature has beginning, middle, and end” (Kahn,
2001, p. 107).
The number three is also three points that can represent a triangle.
“It was the Pythagoreans who…came forth with the conception
of form. For them, form meant limit, and the limit is understandable
especially in numerical terms” (Stumpf,
1993, p. 11).
Through numbers, Pythagoras sought to discover that which is universally
true within the kosmos. And he did find truth in mathematics,
in geometry, and in science. Pythagoras
discovered the theorem that now bears his name: “the square of
the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals the sum of the squares of
the sides forming the right angle” (Strohmeier
and Westbrook, 2003, p. 68).
Pythagoras has also been credited with what later came to be known as
“the Platonic solids—the pyramid, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron,
and icosahedron—although he regarded the sphere as the most perfect,
and thus the most beautiful figure of all” (p.
69).
It is with Pythagoras that man begins to describe the physical world
with precision. Through
his study of astronomy, Pythagoras hypothesized the following truths.
Pythagoras “argued that the Earth itself was a sphere; he demonstrated
that day and night were a result of the Earth’s revolution; and
he showed that the change in seasons was due to the tilt of the Earth’s
axis relative to the sun” (p.
90).
Furthermore, Pythagoras understood that the moon shines by the reflected
light of the sun. He thus understood solar and lunar eclipses (p.
90).
The genius of Pythagoras is evident in the way he applied calculation,
observation, and reason to discover truths of the natural world. Pythagoras
was fascinated by the physical world; at the same time, he looked closely
toward the betterment of mankind as he acquired knowledge and understanding
of physical truths. For example, in music, Pythagoras believed that
certain tones and rhythms were beneficial to health, and also aligned
the individual with the harmony of the universe. Pythagoras believed
that “music was an expression of harmonia, the divine principle
that brings order to chaos and discord” (Strohmeier
and Westbrook, 2003, 78).
In the morning, residents of the Pythagorean community awoke to concordant
sounds that prepared them to begin the day in a tranquil manner. Certain
rhythms and melodies were thought to help free the Pythagorean from
feelings of sadness, anger or envy. Instruments of the day included
the lyre, the flute, the aulos, a kind of oboe, and the monochord,
an instrument with a single string. In the evening, the Pythagorean
community listened to melodies designed to induce a peaceful state.
“Blending particular intervals and modulations of the voice, sometimes
with words, these evening songs produced in his disciples a restful
sleep, with pleasing and meaningful dreams” (p.
79).
Pythagoras endeavored to create an environment that would posture one
toward inner peace and good will toward others. Pythagoras
was able to arrive at certain discoveries in music through mathematical
inquiry, or more precisely, through exploration of the relationships
between numbers:
Iamblichus
noted that “it is said that music was discovered by Pythagoras”
(Iamblichus,
1818/1986, p. 229).
This statement would seem to be hyperbolic, but it is also a testament
to the significance of Pythagoras’ contributions to our understanding
of music. Pythagoras
was not without his critics. Some persons objected to the “cult-like”aspects
of the Pythagorean community, which were seen as secretive and exclusive.
Members of the Pythagorean society were called homakooi, “those
who come together to listen,” and their assembly hall was called
a homakoeion, “a place for hearing together” (Kahn,
2001, p 8).
What the Pythagoreans heard was an akousma, a “hearing”
or a symbolon, a “password” (p.
8).
Pythagoreans who had successfully completed both the three-year vow
of silence, the probationary period for entering into Pythagorean society,
and the five-year vow of silence were allowed in the chamber where Pythagoras
spoke. The newcomers to Pythagorean society were permitted to listen
to Pythagoras’ akousma only from behind a linen curtain.
Persons from outside Pythagorean society were not admitted, as “the
teachings of Pythagoras were not to be revealed to nonmembers”
(p. 8).
Thus, some persons from the surrounding community of Croton viewed the
Pythagorean community with suspicion and distrust. Pythagorean
philosophy was unique in its day, and it did contain special information
and views that were not disclosed to those outside of the society. For
example, Pythagoras assigned importance to the number four, the tetrad,
for this number represents completion:
The
tetraktys, composed of ten points that form the shape of a pyramid,
was considered “a symbol of the human psyche and also a numerical
model for the kosmos” (p.
73).
Members of the Pythagorean society took an oath not to disclose the
great wisdom of the tetraktys. For Pythagoras, numbers and numeric relationships
could be used to reveal truths about the material world; but numbers
also transcend their literal meanings through symbol, metaphor, and
archetype. Pythagorean
philosophy would later influence Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. “Socrates
asserted that leading a good life meant that the person was using reason
to discover the truth and had determined to live according to it”
(Gutek, 2001,
p. 2).
In Socrates, one sees the synthesis of belief and action, when Socrates
sacrifices his life in order to be true to his principles. Socrates
was sentenced to take his own life drinking hemlock. He could have left
the region and saved his own life, but chose not to. As did Pythagoras
before him, Socrates believed that his life had a higher purpose than
his mere physical existence. Socrates’ student, Plato, also devoted
himself to the search for universal truths and for the good. In 387
B.C.E., Plato founded a school of higher learning called the Academy.
Plato and his students “examined questions dealing with metaphysics,
the study of ultimate reality; epistemology, the study of knowledge;
and axiology, the examination of ethical and aesthetic values”
(p. 3).
Plato developed philosophical idealism, which significantly contributed
to the foundation of Western thought. Aristotle then carried forward
the quest for knowledge and for the good. He said, “good is what
all desire” (Gomes,
2002, p. 49).
Aristotle was likely influenced by the Pythagorean concept of the dyad,
which is evidenced in his concepts on metaphysics. Aristotle’s
metaphysics addressed the force of opposites, such as good and evil,
light and darkness, limit and limitless. Pythagoras’
thirst for knowledge and understanding also led him to discoveries in
mathematics, geometry, music, and science. More than two thousand years
after the time of Pythagoras, Albert Einstein said that the scientist
is many things but that he may also view himself as “a Platonist
or Pythagorean insofar as he considers the viewpoint of logical simplicity
as an indispensable and effective tool of his research” (Kahn,
2001, p. 172).
Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Einstein, and myriad other great
thinkers have valued reason as the pathway to that which is true. Pythagoras
was influenced by those who preceded him. He, in turn, influenced many
who came after him. Thus, a seed of thought planted within the framework
of history gives way to new thoughts and understandings. Pythagorean
philosophy is enduring for it addresses essential issues of our being
in the world. Man has the ability to use reason, and he must search
for the good. That which constitutes the good is not self-serving; rather,
according to Pythagoras, the good becomes manifest in the attributes
of modesty, kindness, generosity, and reticence. Poised at the commencement
of the twenty-first century, Western society appears to have diverged
from the teachings of Pythagoras. We live in a time when individuals
often seem self-absorbed and excessively focused on the accumulation
of personal wealth. Perhaps strict vegetarianism, communal living, and
lengthy vows of silence seem incompatible with many in the modern era.
However, it would bode well for mankind to reflect upon our purpose
in this life, and to return to consideration for the whole of humanity
as we venture forth and live our lives. In The Golden Verses it says, “know that death comes to everyone, and that wealth will sometimes be acquired, sometimes lost” (Strohmeier and Westbrook, 2003, p. 139). The Golden Verses were not written by Pythagoras. They were written in the fourth century B.C.E. But within these lines we can hear the voice of the philosopher from Samos. There are many important messages in the teachings of Pythagoras. However, one significant counsel within Pythagorean philosophy is that this mortal life will surely pass, but the soul will go on. Therefore, we must ask ourselves what is meaningful and what is good. And then we must strive toward that telos with our whole heart. References Did you enjoy this? Email the author. |
